Research That's A Blessing And Research That's A Threat
By Anwar Khursheed
02 May, 2016
Countercurrents.org
Science through its application brought terrific benefits to society, yet upon closer analysis environmental pollution, ecological imbalances, radiation causing indescribably horrific sufferings. There is a thin line between research that's a blessing and research that's a threat.
Professor Lisa Bortolotti, University of Birmingham while discussing philosophy of cognitive science in her book titled “An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science” (John Wiley and Sons Ltd) provided a lively and accessible introduction to ethical implications of scientific research. She paid special attention to the complex relationship between the advancement of science, policymaking, and public interest and to the continuity between scientific research and other human activities. David Papineau says “In a way, bioethics is the science of science.
Bioethics is the moral discernment as it relates to medical policy, practice, and research concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy. The scope of bioethics includes cloning, gene therapy, life extension, human genetic engineering, astroethics and life in space. There is no dearth of examples of conflicting science; to name a few;
The experimental mutation of rare viruses, development of nuclear weapon in the name of power generation and nuclear medicine through uranium enrichment, thought policing by using Brain scanning to accurately read a person's thoughts could be a valid apprehension of misuse; otherwise an extraordinary tool to enhance security or the treatment of brain damaged patients unable to move or communicate, the charge of artificial rains over the coffee plantation is initially a fiction but could be reality in future. The best possible elucidation to global warming is manipulating Earth's environment on a planetary scale through geoengineering, Prenatal diagnosis lies in the fragments of DNA to develop fetal genetic screening raising the thorny ethical issues.
The experimental mutation of rare viruses can do either help in developing new strains to curb potential hazards or create a new deadly virus which could be potential bio-weapon. The possibility of such a situation does exist in many scientific fields, whose enquiry may cause serious threat to the global security. The ethical issues as the outcome of many researches could create painful social dilemmas.
Separation of radioisotopes for nuclear power generation and nuclear medicine production could be very tempting, but the same could be used for development of nuclear weapons, the same research could either be bane or boon. Uranium found in nature consists largely of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238. The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the 'fission' or splitting of the U-235 atoms, a process which releases energy in the form of heat. U-235 is the main fissile isotope of uranium. Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope. The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope which does not contribute directly to the fission process. Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate (‘enrich’) one isotope relative to others from 0.7% to 3% to 5% U-235 in their fuel. The extent of enrichment extended beyond 90% is sufficient to make a bomb. Because the chemistry of the various isotopes is almost identical, sorting one from another has always been one of the major barriers to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Today's state-of-the-art technology involves cascades of thousands of centrifuges, and huge infrastructure, normally difficult to perform secretly; the stalemate of Iran and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is the most recent episode.
Alternatively, lasers can be used quickly, quietly and more efficiently to excite the levels associated with the desired isotope and, together with other technology; can sort the uranium-235 from the rest. Nearly a decade back South Korea applied laser technology to enrich uranium-235 to near weapon’s purity in a matter of weeks. However, it remained unnoticed and undetected for years together and was unearthed accidently.
This advent of laser which started with the separation of Calcium-48 for medical use in the diagnosis of bone disorders; and Nickel-64, a promising agent for cancer therapy developed by Texan researcher Mark Raizen. The desired isotopes push electrons into higher energy states by the cheap and tunable laser whose wavelength of operation can be altered in a controlled manner. Despite acute shortage of medical isotopes the high risk of nuclear proliferation does exist. Opinion is divided; Raizen argued that it is unlikely that his technique will work well for heavy elements such as uranium but others stress that laser-enrichment technology should be undertaken with caution as it make ends up into unsafe hands or even terrorists.
Thought policing by using Brain scanning to accurately read a person's thoughts could be a valid apprehension of misuse; otherwise an extraordinary tool to enhance security or the treatment of brain damaged patients unable to move or communicate. Accurately reading a person's thoughts could be an extraordinary breakthrough namely; application in criminal’s arrest, brain damaged patients cure, recovery of voice, taste, touch, movements and other feelings through functional MRI.
At the same time each person's brain is different; it's far from clear that scientists will ever come up with a general-purpose 'mind-reading' algorithm for all. For another, functional MRI machines could not easily be deployed in airports. Even if they were, a simple shake of the head would throw them off. “You can't build a detector that says 'this person is going to blow up a plane now”. The entrepreneurship in 'neuromarketing' has already introduced lie-detection and tools of measuring an individual's subconscious emotional responses to stimuli. All this please us till it is used for well being, but the moment it comes to mind that someone could use a machine to gain access to your most secret inner thoughts the prospect of such a device raises hackles.
The best possible elucidation to global warming is manipulating Earth's environment on a planetary scale through geoengineering; for instance ambient temperature control through solar -radiation management by virtue of tiny particle spraying in the stratosphere to reflect or attract the incoming sunlight or shifting of excess carbon dioxide from the air through algal blooming of large water bodies by nutrient seeding (iron) to shift the carbon dioxide from the air to the ocean floor.
The charge of artificial rains over the coffee plantation is initially a fiction but could be reality in future. The conservationists perhaps rightly expect that geoengineering might be reckless in the extreme and further ignite the volatile politics of climate change. The Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering (SPICE) project of the British government consisted of pumping water up a one-kilometer tall hose and spray it into the air to test solar-radiation management to investigate the technique which could produce the same type of global cooling effect as a large volcanic eruption – such as Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in June 1991 (but without any disruption from hot lava, ash or smoke, which would not be present). In the two years following that eruption the Earth cooled on average by about half a degree Celsius. The objective of SPICE research project was to understand whether or not these natural processes can be mimicked and, if so, with what effect, but the project was halted out of the concerns about the lack of government regulation of such geoengineering projects were raised. The opinion was much split on – those who favour says the altitude is too low to alter the climate, and there is plenty of water vapour already up there, David Keith, a geoengineering specialist at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts says “It doesn't pose a risk other than the hose falling on someone's head,”, however on the other side of the fence environmentalists sounded the alarm on moral hazard in addition to unintended consequences such as accidentally shifting rainfall patterns and triggering droughts. The environmental organizations such as Ottawa, Canada based ETC Group; its director Pat Mooney argues that the very presence of such an experiment may make politicians think that there's a way to wriggle out of emissions caps underway on climate negotiations stalled around the world and “It will be an easy way for governments to sidestep their obligations,”.
Prenatal diagnosis lies in the fragments of DNA to develop fetal genetic screening to understand the baby's future behaviour and health. Cure of specific diseases based on this method are already a reality; for example Down’s syndrome detection in the embryo itself is more than 95% sensitive, making it comparable to more invasive tests such as amniocentesis. Because it carries no risk, says Dennis Lo, a pathologist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Other genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis may also be detected during early pregnancy, but it raises some thorny societal questions and many more pregnancies might be terminated, there are countries that are very concerned about mental retardation and might be willing to enforce genetic selection to avoid it, insurance companies or public-health services might resist paying for the care of disabled children if their birth could have been avoided opined Henry Greely, a bioethicist at Stanford University in California. Developments in genomics have made full foetal sequencing possible and affordable, might raise even more contentious issues like termination of pregnancy due to high disease risk even though that disease might occur much later in old age in the future, or might never occur at all, given that it is currently impossible to predict whether this condition or the vast majority of other diseases will occur on the basis of genetic information alone.
At present, there are no guidelines on how to counsel prospective parents about the avalanche of genetic information they may be about to receive. Dennis Lo’s predicament is how to convince parents before birth about a disease that could be cured within a child's lifetime. “Who knows where medical science will be in 60 years?”
The ethics or philosophy of science has in more recent times become an increasingly important subject, but the modern day scientific ethics has their roots under the ethics or morality underpinning Islamic Science. Incisive thought from one of the greatest Muslim scholars of all time, Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) and great historian Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)), states that "total reflection also includes inner reflection, and the pursuit of knowledge should not be divorced from ethical and value criteria." Hence, one could indeed argue that experimental and empirical efforts cannot be completely divorced from one's heart, inner intuition, insight or conscience. Reason and revelation go hand in hand, it would then seem, while science and knowledge are at once personal and social. Consideration for higher ethics under Islam is expressed in many ways. As early as the 9th century, the physician Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi wrote the first treatise on`adab al-tabib, i.e. medical ethics. In this treatise, Rahawi labels physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies" and in this treatise he spells out all the deeds and acts a Muslim physician must observe. Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (854-925), too, in his medical work did so much to `humanise' medicine by taking into consideration the patient's problems and attitudes and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies."
The modern history of ethics in science started with Renaissance when science got popular with the masses, but most of the scientists remained cautious about the application and use of their work. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) drew a distinction between offensive and defensive warfare, and emphasized the role of good defenses in protecting people’s liberty from tyrants. He refused to divulge the details of his plans for submarines out of his apprehension. John Napier (1550-1617), the inventor of logarithms, also experimented with a new form of artillery. Upon seeing its destructive power, he decided to keep its details a secret, and even spoke from his deathbed against the creation of new kinds of weapons. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) a pioneer of physics and chemistry concealed all his inventions related to a variety of potentially harmful subjects, including poisons, invisible ink, counterfeit money, explosives, and kinetic weaponry and said ‘my love of Mankind has obliged me to conceal, even from my nearest Friends’. Alfred H. Lloyd (1905) Ethics and Its History (American Journal of Sociology, 11, No. 2) is a detailed discourse on this topic published more than a century back describing the Dependence of Ethics on Natural Science, and the Important Difference between Ethics as Personal Experience and Ethics as a Social Profession.
The golden principle is the dissemination of knowledge; despite the fact that people did not always think that the benefits of freely disseminating knowledge outweighed the harms. F.S. Taylor’s in his book “The Alchemists,” (H. Schuman, 1949) says, “Alchemy was certainly intended to be useful .... But [the alchemist] never proposes the public use of such things, the disclosing of his knowledge for the benefit of man. …. Any disclosure of the alchemical secret was felt to be profoundly wrong, and likely to bring immediate punishment from on high. The reason generally given for such secrecy was the probable abuse by wicked men of the power that the alchemical would give …. The alchemists, indeed, felt a strong moral responsibility that is not always acknowledged by the scientists of today.
The intention is not to create panic but to just press the alarm button that “look we should not be swayed by the rosy claims rather go by the ethics”, if benefits greatly outweigh the risks.
Dr. Anwar Khursheed is Professor of Environmental Engineering in the Department of Civil Engineering in Aligarh Muslim University and University Engineer, Building Department, AMU Aligarh. He did his under graduate and masters programme from AMU and PhD from IIT Roorkee. He possesses teaching and research experience of about 33 years. He has also served for three years in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He was involved many design and consultancy projects out of which 46 were major. He is mainly teaching subjects related to Environmental & Pollution Control Engineering. His research areas are Wastewater Treatment, Energy Recovery Processes, Nutrient Removal, and Reverse osmosis. He has published more than forty (40) papers in various International and National journals and conferences. He has also delivered dozens of invited talks and expert lectures, 59 projects and dissertations. He has completed large number of projects including Campus-wide Networking on 10 Gigabyte OFC backbone & Camus Wi-Fi projects and Construction projects of more than 200 crores. He also headed Computer Centre as its Director and FCI as Principal and presently he also hold the position of Nodal Officer of the Camus-wide Networking Project (Wi-Fi Project).